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CONTENTS
Volume 31, Number 2, August 2026
 

Abstract
In this study, a methodology for determining performance level thresholds of truss moment frames (TMFs) with H-shaped sections was proposed within the framework of performance-based seismic design (PBSD). Numerical analyses were conducted on six groups comprising a total of twenty TMF substructure models using the ABAQUS software. Based on the modified Park-Ang damage model and corresponding damage criteria, the inter-story drift ratio (IDR) limits of TMF structures were determined for the performance levels of Linear Limit, Immediate Occupancy, Damage Control, Life Safety, Limited Safety Range, Collapse Prevention, and Collapse. The effects of six key design parameters—including story height, span length, column section dimension, truss panel width, truss panel height, and diagonal web member configuration—on the damage performance of TMF structures were systematically investigated. Based on the relationship between performance levels and damage indices, the aforementioned performance level thresholds represented by IDR were determined as 0.63%, 1.10%, 1.69%, 2.22%, 2.65%, 3.06%, and 3.45%, respectively. Lastly, the simplified performance objectives for TMFs was proposed, which could provide a design reference for PBSD of TMF structures.

Key Words
damage index; PBSD; performance level; truss moment frame

Address
Kaichen Ni: School of Civil Engineering, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215011, China
Guohua Sun: 1) School of Civil Engineering, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215011, China; 2) Key Laboratory of Seismic Engineering and Resilience, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215011, China
Wenxia Yang: Jiangsu Huning Steel Mechanism Co., Ltd, Yixing 214231, China

Abstract
Buckling instability represents an extremely destructive failure mode for piles in liquefied soils. However, accurately determining the critical buckling load and reliably predicting pile buckling remain significant challenges in current research. To address this, this study establishes an efficient method for calculating the critical buckling load of piles in liquefiable sites. The proposed approach is based on the beam-on non-linear Winkler foundation model and comprehensively considers the effects of soil liquefaction, initial geometric imperfections, pile nonlinearity, and lateral loads. Subsequently, the influences of soil properties, pile characteristics, and lateral loads on pile buckling are systematically evaluated. Building on this parametric analysis, an efficient and simplified discrimination method is developed to assess the buckling failure of piles in liquefied soils under varying soil relative densities. Finally, the effectiveness of the proposed method is validated through shaking table tests and real-world engineering failure cases. The results demonstrate that the method can effectively estimate pile buckling failure in liquefied soils. In summary, the proposed discrimination method provides a valuable reference for studying buckling behavior and for preventing instability of piles in potentially liquefiable ground.

Key Words
buckling discrimination; liquefied soil-pile interaction; numerical modelling; pile foundation; soil liquefaction

Address
Shengkun Wang: 1) School of Civil Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519082, China; 2) School of Civil Engineering and Transportation, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou 510006, China
Xiaoyu Zhang: School of Civil Engineering and Transportation, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou 510006, China
Haibo Zhu: School of Civil Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400045, China

Abstract
Friction-type dampers exhibit a nearly constant friction-force response throughout the displacement history under loading conditions. Although this behavior improves the overall energy dissipation capacity of structures subjected to seismic excitation by providing additional damping, supplementary mechanisms are generally required to mitigate the adverse effects of residual displacements. In this study, an Automatic Damping and Reverse System (AD&RS) device capable of significantly reducing residual displacements was developed and experimentally investigated. In addition, the force-displacement behavior of the AD&RS device was compared with that of a reference device without a spring mechanism, and the fundamental differences between the two systems were comprehensively evaluated. Furthermore, the seismic performance of reinforced concrete (RC) frames with and without the AD&RS device (conventional system) was investigated in accordance with the Turkish Building Earthquake Code (TBEC-2018). The experimental results demonstrated that, at a displacement level of 15 mm and under a torque value of 50 Nm, the reference device generated a reaction force of 8.93 kN, whereas the AD&RS device produced a significantly higher reaction force of 58.32 kN, corresponding to an increase of 553.08%. Similarly, under a torque value of 100 Nm, the increase ratio was determined to be 546.62%. Moreover, nonlinear structural performance analyses performed in accordance with TBEC-2018 revealed that 12.5% of the columns and 50% of the beams in the conventional RC frame failed to satisfy the prescribed performance criteria. In contrast, when the AD&RS device was integrated into the structural system, all columns and beams remained within the allowable performance limits. Overall, the findings clearly demonstrate that the AD&RS device substantially enhances the reaction-force capacity compared with the reference device. Furthermore, the proposed system can be considered an effective and promising solution for improving the seismic performance of reinforced concrete frame systems.

Key Words
friction damper; friction; performance-based design; R.C frame; recentering damper

Address
Genser Engineering Architecture Construction Industry and Trade Co. Ltd., DEPARK Technology Development Zone, Dokuz Eylül University Tinaztepe Campus, Doğuş Street No: 207/AG, Beta Building, Office: Z12, Buca, İzmir, Türkiye

Abstract
To ensure the safe operation of airport under earthquake disaster, it is essential to study the seismic performance of Air Traffic Control (ATC) tower under strong earthquake action. Firstly, the damage of the ATC tower under strong earthquake action is studied by using the elastic-plastic time-history analysis, and the distribution of structure damage is discussed. Meanwhile, the seismic performance objectives of key components of high-rise tower structures are proposed, and the influence of performance-based seismic design on high-rise tower structure damage under strong earthquakes is analyzed. At last, pushover analysis is carried out by using four different lateral force modes, i.e. uniform force mode, inverted triangle mode, elastic CQC mode and real-time mode, and the applicability of pushover mode on the ATC tower is analyzed. The research shows that the beam and column of the tower structure have no obvious stiffness degradation under the rare earthquake action, while the damage is mainly concentrated at the tube shear wall, for example, the plastic strain and compressive damage of the tower structure under the T3 wave action reach 8.35x10-3 and 0.61, respectively. Related to the high-rise building structure which damage is mainly concentrated in the bottom area, the damage located in the middle area of the tower tube can't be ignored, and so the middle and bottom areas of the tower tube should be taken as the weak parts and strengthen design. Based on the design of non-yielding performance under moderate earthquake, the damage of the tower concrete cube can be effectively reduced. For example, the compressive damage and plastic strain reduction of the tower concrete tube under the T5 wave rare earthquake action can reach 19.04% and 52.37% respectively, and the damage state of the tower concrete tube is decreased from moderate to mild. Based on the comparison of the analysis results of pushover modes and elastic-plastic time-history, it is suggested that the inverted triangle mode should be adopted in the bottom area of the tower, and the real-time mode should be used in the middle and top of the tower for pushover analysis.

Key Words
air traffic control tower; applicability of pushover mode; damage analysis; performance-based seismic design; strong earthquake action

Address
School of Transportation Science and Engineering, Civil Aviation University of China, Tianjin 300300, China

Abstract
This study investigates an isolated structure equipped with a Leverage-type Stiffness-Controllable Mass Damper (LSCMD) system using the Least Energy Method (LEM) control algorithm. Although the isolation structure can effectively reduce structural acceleration, it may lead to excessive isolation displacement when encountering a long-period near-fault earthquake. The objective of the LSCMD system in this study is to mitigate isolation displacement. Two control hardware configurations are examined: a Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)-based control platform and a motion card-based control platform. The PLC-based control platform is limited by its pre-programmed settings, which cannot be manually adjusted to the servo motor parameters. In contrast, the motion card-based control platform allows modification of the motor rotation speed and the PID gains via National Instruments Measurement & Automation Explorer (NI-MAE), which effectively enhances the control performance of LSCMD. This study implements the Shaking Table Tests (STT) and shows that the motion card-based control platform achieves smaller damper strokes. In addition, the pivot displacement is compared to validate the control performance of LEM. The results confirm that the motion card control-based platform provides a stable and accurate experimental framework applicable to other control algorithms and devices.

Key Words
least energy method; LSCMD; motion card-based control platform; programmable logic controller-based control platform; shaking table tests

Address
Qi-Yang Liao: Facility Technology Center, China Engineering Consultants, Inc., No.185, Sec. 2, Xinhai Road, Taipei, Taiwan
Chan-Jung Kang: Department of Civil Engineering, I-Shou University, No.1, Sec. 1, Syuecheng Road, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
Shih-Yu Chu: Department of Civil Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, No.1, University Road, Tainan, Taiwan
Ding-Jie Lin: HD Engineering Consultants Co., Ltd., Taiwan
Chih-Te Chien: Yunlin-Chiayi-Tainan Region Branch Office, Highway Bureau, MOTC, Taiwan
Chih-Hua Peng: Great Work Design Consultant Ltd., Taiwan

Abstract
As a key parameter reflecting both the structural deformation characteristics under seismic loading and the serviceability for daily occupancy comfort, inter-story drift serves as a crucial indicator for evaluating the seismic performance and serviceability of structures. To enable fast and high-accuracy prediction of inter-story drift in steel bundle-tube structures, this study proposes a systematic machine-learning-based framework integrating data-driven prediction, physical interpretability analysis, and performance-oriented inverse design. First, a high-fidelity finite element model is established in Abaqus and nonlinear time-history analyses are conducted under three ground motions and nine PGA levels, yielding 2700 samples from 27 analysis cases. On this basis, eight predictive models, including four conventional and four deep learning algorithms, are developed and evaluated using R2, MAE, MSE, and RMSE. The results indicate that SVR exhibits the best overall performance, with an R2 of 0.966, while deep learning models generally outperform conventional models in prediction accuracy and generalization, with CNN achieving the highest deep learning accuracy, with an R2 of 0.956. Compared with approximately 3h required by Abaqus per analysis, SVR and CNN inference required 60.25 ms and 95.35 ms, respectively. SHAP and Sobol analyses further verify the physical consistency and interpretability of SVR predictions with respect to structural dynamic mechanisms. Under a code-specified inter-story drift limit of 72 mm, a surrogate inverse model for PGA is constructed, yielding critical PGAs of 2077 gal at the 8th story under HWA043 and 1730 gal at the 65th story under TTN024; verification at a PGA of 1730 gal showed that the maximum inter-story drift at the 65th story was close to the limit. The proposed framework provides an efficient and reliable pathway for seismic performance assessment and design optimization of steel bundle-tube structures, and offers an extendable paradigm for performance prediction and performance-based design of other high-rise structural systems.

Key Words
deep learning; inter-story drift; machine learning; prediction model; steel-bundle tube

Address
Xiang Li, Weihao Liu: School of Information Engineering, Hebei University of Architecture, Zhangjiakou 075000, China
Zhenhua Ma, Xiaohui Qin: 1) School of Information Engineering, Hebei University of Architecture, Zhangjiakou 075000, China; 2) Key Laboratory of Smart City Perception and Intelligent Computing of Hebei Province, Zhangjiakou 075000, China
Yong Hao, Jinhao Zhou: School of Civil and Engineering, Hebei University of Architecture, Zhangjiakou 075000, China

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